Population and species concept; phenotypic variability; frequency curves of the characters; geographical variation; mechanisms of natural selection and evolution; micro- and macroevolution. Speciation models; reproductive isolation; anagenesis and cladogenesis; classical evolution and point equilibria. Adaptive radiation; evolutionary meaning of adaptation; general information on adaptive strategies in marine, freshwater and terrestrial aquatic environments; cryptic and aposematic colors. Functional morphology and ecology of feeding systems; breathing; excretion; locomotion and dispersion. Sensitivity to the environment and orientation; biorhythms. Asexual and sexual reproduction; fertilization; types of postembryonic development; development cycles. Ecological niche: structure and dynamics of zoocenosis. Adaptive convergence, homology and analogy. Interspecific relationships (competition, predation, parasitism, camouflage) and intraspecific. Colonies and society. Generalities on animal behavior: communication, courtship, parental care, home range and territoriality. Dynamics of animal populations. Historical and dynamic causes of the distribution of animals: area; paleoecological causes; dispersion; barriers, colonization of geographical areas. Animal biodiversity: structural levels. Animal phylogeny. Taxonomy and systematic. Structural plans, functional morphology and biology of the main animal taxa at the level of classes or main phyletic lines: Protozoa; Porifera; Cnidarians; Ctenophores; Platyhelminthes; Aschelminti; Clams; Annelids; Onychophore and related taxa; Arthropods; Lophophorates; echinoderms; Chordates.

During the exercises in the laboratory, each with shifts lasting about two hours, will be shown slides, live specimens and various preserved materials related to the following taxa: 1. Protozoa; 2. Porifera, Cnidarians and Ctenophores; 3. Annelids; 4. Molluscs; 5. Arthropods; 6. Lofoforati, Echinoderms, Chordates. During field exercises, observations will be made in various natural environments and illustrated methods of sampling and identification of invertebrates and chordates.

Mendelian analysis: Mendel's experiments; purity of gametes, segregation; independenceGenotype and phenotype; penetrance; expression of chromosomal theory of inheritance Gamete formation, Concordance between mendelism and meiosis Population genetics: Hardy-Weinberg theory Sexuality; sex determinationAssociationMendelian analysis extensionsAllelia multiple; Lethal genes; Epistatic genes; Genetic maps in eukaryotes: statistics and cytologicalPlastic genetics in prokaryotes: conjugation, transformation and transduction of bacteria.Maps for recombination and for deletion in bacteriophages.Benzer experimentsDefinition of the function unit by complementing the genetic code; evidence that the code is a triplet, decryption of the code Nature and function of the gene: introduction to the processes of transcription etradution Colinearity between gene and its protein product.Duplication of DNA in prokaryotes: experiments of Meselson and StahlDuplication of DNA in eukaryotes: Taylor experiments

Genetic mutationsMinosomal mutations: Genomic mutationsDefinition, classification, causes and consequences of various types of alterations.Multifences for understanding complex processes: neiprocariotic regulation and eukaryotes Genetic analysis of metabolic pathways Hardy-Weinberg theoryCharts of quantitative genetics.Mechanisms and role of variability Genetics in Evolutionary processes. Hardy-Weinberg theory

The teaching is divided into classroom lessons, whose frequency is recommended to be able to face the written and oral tests during the exam. Macromolecules and structure-function relationships. Amino acids, proteins (structure-function relationships), enzymatic catalysis, lipids and carbohydrates. Bio-energetic, glucose metabolism, citric acid cycle, lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation.

The teaching is divided into 11 topics. Each topic includes practical exercises in the laboratory, whose frequency is recommended to be able to face the practical test during the exam. On average, one topic is held each week. Topics covered in lectures: safety regulations; collection of experimental data; instrumentation of common use; spectrophotometry; protein purification; liquid chromatography; binding; binding kinetics; steady-state enzymatic kinetics; protein electrophoresis; immunochemical methods. Laboratory experiments: Use of pipettes, scales and laboratory vessels, pH measurement and buffer preparation, Vis-UV spectroscopy, Protein dosing, Extraction. Centrifugation. Dialysis, ion-exchange chromatography, Binding, steady-state kinetics, electrophoresis. Determination of P.M. of a protein, ELISA technique

The program of the course is traditional (kinetic theory, mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, fluid dynamics) but where possible, particular emphasis is given to conservation laws, intended as a means of reading the surrounding world. Kinetic gas theory. Work and kinetic energy. Shock. Fields of forces. Potential energy. Energy conservation. Dynamics in two and three dimensions. Rotations and rolling. Atomic spectra. Bohr theory. Electric fields. Gauss's theorem. Electric current. Ohm's law. Magnetic fields. Faraday's law. Maxwell equations. Electromagnetic waves. Polarization. Reflection and Refraction. Images. Lenses. Optical instruments. Fluid dynamics.

The program of the course is traditional (kinetic theory, mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, fluid dynamics) but where possible, particular emphasis is given to conservation laws, intended as a means of reading the surrounding world. Kinetic gas theory. Work and kinetic energy. Shock. Fields of forces. Potential energy. Energy conservation. Dynamics in two and three dimensions. Rotations and rolling. Atomic spectra. Bohr theory. Electric fields. Gauss's theorem. Electric current. Ohm's law. Magnetic fields. Faraday's law. Maxwell equations. Electromagnetic waves. Polarization. Reflection and Refraction. Images. Lenses. Optical instruments. Fluid dynamics.

The immune system. Lymphoid tissues and organs. Lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. Innate and acquired immunity. Primary and secondary response.Processing, presentation and recognition of the antigen.Activation, proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes. The antibody antigen reaction in vitro: immunofluorescence and ELISA, cytofluorimetry, monoclonal antibodies. The Major Histocompatibility System (MHC): the MHC molecules and genes of class I and class II, the antigen restriction. Cells and effector molecules of the immune response: cytokines, the complement system, phagocytosis and cytotoxicity. Definition of immunocompromised host: primitive and secondary immunodeficiencies. HIV and AIDS infection: mechanisms of viral replication, latency, immunopathogenesis and therapy. Immunopathogenesis of HCV infection: lymphocyte migration and organ recruitment. Inflammation, immunological damage, and types of hypersensitivity in humans. Reactivity towards Self and autoimmune diseases. Tuberculosis, respiratory infections and SARS. Tons and mechanisms of evasion of the immune response.

The course is carried out by all the professors of the Degree Course which illustrate, with monographic lessons, some peculiar aspects of the research in Biology

Topics covered in the lectures (6CFU): · Atomic theory. The electrons in atoms, quantum, orbital numbers and their filling. Atom structure. Atoms, molecules, atomic number, atomic mass and mole. · Periodic system, general properties of the elements. · The chemical bond. Electronegativity, hybrid orbitals, resonance, hydrogen bonding. Molecules. Molecular Structure. · Chemical Nomenclature. Oxides, hydroxides, acids, salts. · The gaseous state. Equation of state. Ideal gases and real gases. · Condensed states, bonds in solids. · Determination of the formulas. Equilibrium chemical equilibrium equations and stoichiometric calculations. Oxide-reductions oxidation number and calculation. · Fundamentals of thermodynamics, principles and status functions · State changes and state diagrams. · Chemical equilibrium. Balance constant. Basic acid and precipitation balances. · Solutions. Concentration. Self-protection of water. Colligative properties. Electrolyte solutions. Solutions of strong and weak acids and bases, pH. Buffer solutions. Hydrolysis. · Electrochemistry. Batteries and electrolysis cells. · Chemical kinetics and hints on kinetic theories. Speed ​​of reaction and factors that influence it. · Systematic inorganic chemistry. Chemical behavior of elements, characteristics of groups and periods. The main elements of the periodic table. Transition elements and coordination complexes.

Volumetric chemical analysis: basic acid titrations; indicators; redox titrations. Potentiometric methods: the pH meter. Analysis with spectrophotometric methods: UV-visible spectrometry, spectrophotometer, absorption spectra, Lambert-Beer law. Practical experiences in the laboratory on the topics covered. Topics covered in the laboratory experience (3 CFU): The chemistry laboratory: equipment and materials. Standards of behavior and safety.ƒn Measurement, measurement errors.ƒn Quantitative volumetric methods: basic and redox titrations. Preparation of solutions of known type; standard substances. Indicators and titration curves. Analysis with potentiometric and spectrophotometric methods. The following topics will be addressed: ¡Acid-base PTitolation. ¡Redox PT. ¡Potentometric PTithings. ¡Spectrophotometric determination of Fe2+.

The course is divided into 2 modules: 1 of Cytology (4 CFU) and 1 of Histology (2 CFU). Topics covered in Lessons: Chemical composition of the cell. Cell membranes: structure and functions. Secretion and vesicular traffic. Cellular organs: structure and functions. The cytoskeleton and the bases of cellular movement. The nucleus and the genetic information. Cell cycle and cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis. Epithelial tissue. Connective tissues. Muscle tissue. Nervous tissue. Topics covered in the exercises: Use of the optical microscope. Observation of fresh cells. Cellular colors. Examination of histological preparations with observation of the main tissues.

The course aims to provide the adequate knowledge for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate biological processes, with particular regard to the gene structure, its organization and its expression. Furthermore, the most advanced molecular biology methodologies used in basic research or for application purposes will be considered. The course is divided into the following topics: Anatomy of genomes; Transcripts and proteomes; Accessibility to the genome; Assembly of the beginning of transcription assembly; RNA synthesis and maturation; Synthesis and maturation of the proteome; Interpretation of a genomic sequence; Genome replication; Shelter systems; Gene recombination; Notions of genetic engineering and of recombinant DNA techniques.

Use of instrumentation and laboratory equipment (plasticherie and glassware, chemical hood, laminar flow hood, incubators, countertop centrifuges, thermostatic baths, scales, pH meter, magnetite stirrers, electrophoretic devices); Basic techniques for the preparation and maintenance of E. coli cell cultures; Culture media (soil types, basic constituents, buffers, pH indicators, antibiotics, chromogens); Basic techniques of recombinant DNA technology; Basic PCR techniques; Transformation techniques in E. coli; Basic techniques of electrophoretic analysis of nucleic acids; Basic techniques of the use of restriction enzymes; Analysis of DNA and protein sequences.

The program of the course is traditional (kinetic theory, mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, fluid dynamics) but where possible, particular emphasis is given to conservation laws, intended as a means of reading the surrounding world. Kinetic gas theory. Work and kinetic energy. Shock. Fields of forces. Potential energy. Energy conservation. Dynamics in two and three dimensions. Rotations and rolling. Atomic spectra. Bohr theory. Electric fields. Gauss's theorem. Electric current. Ohm's law. Magnetic fields. Faraday's law. Maxwell equations. Electromagnetic waves. Polarization. Reflection and Refraction. Images. Lenses. Optical instruments. Fluid dynamics.

The program of the course is traditional (kinetic theory, mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, fluid dynamics) but where possible, particular emphasis is given to conservation laws, intended as a means of reading the surrounding world. Kinetic gas theory. Work and kinetic energy. Shock. Fields of forces. Potential energy. Energy conservation. Dynamics in two and three dimensions. Rotations and rolling. Atomic spectra. Bohr theory. Electric fields. Gauss's theorem. Electric current. Ohm's law. Magnetic fields. Faraday's law. Maxwell equations. Electromagnetic waves. Polarization. Reflection and Refraction. Images. Lenses. Optical instruments. Fluid dynamics.

The immune system. Lymphoid tissues and organs. Lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. Innate and acquired immunity. Primary and secondary response.Processing, presentation and recognition of the antigen.Activation, proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes. The antibody antigen reaction in vitro: immunofluorescence and ELISA, cytofluorimetry, monoclonal antibodies. The Major Histocompatibility System (MHC): the MHC molecules and genes of class I and class II, the antigen restriction. Cells and effector molecules of the immune response: cytokines, the complement system, phagocytosis and cytotoxicity. Definition of immunocompromised host: primitive and secondary immunodeficiencies. HIV and AIDS infection: mechanisms of viral replication, latency, immunopathogenesis and therapy. Immunopathogenesis of HCV infection: lymphocyte migration and organ recruitment. Inflammation, immunological damage, and types of hypersensitivity in humans. Reactivity towards Self and autoimmune diseases. Tuberculosis, respiratory infections and SARS. Tons and mechanisms of evasion of the immune response.

The course is carried out by all the professors of the Degree Course which illustrate, with monographic lessons, some peculiar aspects of the research in Biology

Origin of Vertebrates. The first Agnates and the appearance of Gnatostomes. Diversity and evolutionary success of aquatic bed vertebrates based on their anatomy and reproductive biology. Origin of the Tetrapods and conquest of the land emerged. The advent of the amniotic egg and the definitive conquest of the terrestrial environment by the Reptiles. Birds and flight adaptation. The diversity of Mammals is the expression of a natural plasticity and of ongoing evolutionary processes. Comparative Anatomy of Organic Vertebrate Systems: Food Strategies in Vertebrates: Respiratory, Digestive and Circulatory Systems; organization, development and function of equipment involved in the intake of food, in their treatment, in the capture of oxygen and the circulation of blood and lymph. Evolution of the Uro-Genital System in Vertebrates: organization of the renal system. Modalities and types of excretion. Sexual differentiation and sex determination. Reproductive strategies in Vertebrates.

From a single cell to a multicellular organism: differentiation and morphogenesis. Study models. Sexual reproduction. Structural differences between the egg and the spermatozoon. Fertilization: recognition of gametes at a distance and by contact. Activation of the spermatozoon. Fusion of gametes. Activation of the egg. Prevention of polispermy. General information on the various stages of development: segmentation, gastrulation, organogenesis. The types of eggs and the related division patterns. Development of the anfiosso. Radial segmentation, gastrulation: cellular mechanisms. Early stages of organogenesis: neurulation. Development of amphibians. Segmentation: macromers and micromers. Gastrulation and early stages of organogenesis. Bird Development. Discoid segmentation. Gastrulation: primitive stria and Hensen's knot. Neurulation. The mesoderm and the fate of the regions in which it is subdivided. Somatopleura and splancnopleura. The celoma. The extraembryonic outbuildings: amnios, corion, allantoide and yolk sac. Development of Mammals. Rotational segmentation. The blastocyst: trophoblast and internal cell mass. Gastrulation. Placenta. Neurulation.

Biodiversity, systematics and phylogeny of plants. Concept of plant organisms; phylogenetic methods of investigation; classifications. The diversity of plants in an evolutionary key: the organization of vegetative structures. Photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria. Phyletic lines in the protophytes and in the photosynthetic unicellular cells. Mushrooms. Lichens. Reproductive modalities and biological cycles in plants. Main algal taxa. Bryophytes. Vascular plants: pteridophytes; gymnosperms; angiosperms, with examples of families. Evolution of ontogenetic cycle, from algae plants to vascular plants with flower. Main cultivated plants and their origins. Global importance of vegetations and plant biodiversity.

Plant cytology. Plant cells; endosymbiotic theories. vacuoles; microbodies, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, secretory pathways. Cell wall, plasmodesms. Plastids. Cell differentiation. Plant anatomy. Meristems and totipotency of plant cells; vegetative apexes. Definitive fabrics; parenchyma; tegumental, mechanical, conducting, secretory tissues. The corm - anatomy and organography of: root, caule, leaves; specializations and transformations. The flower, its structure, nature and formation; pollination, fertilization, embryogenesis; seeds and fruits. Vegetative reproduction. Structure of the upper plants. Meristems and adult tissues. Cormo development: primary and secondary growth. Primary and secondary structures of roots and stems; leaf development and organization Reproduction. Genesis and evolution of the flower and the fruit.

Preparation of fresh and permanent plant histological preparations. Overview of Histochemical and Cytochemical Techniques. Morphological analysis. Identification of plant organisms. Identification and classification of vascular plants. Preparation of samples for herbals. In vivo and in vitro plants collection. Introduction to plant ecology and field excursions for in situ detection of plant biodiversity, with hints on the science of vegetation

Structural theory. Isomerism and stereoisomeries. Resonance and electronic effects. Functional groups: structure, nomenclature and chemical-physical properties of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkynes, arenes, halides, alcohols, amines, imines, phenols, acids, esters, amides, imides and nitriles. Homo- and hetero-aromatic compounds. The main reaction mechanisms: radical halogenation of alkanes; electrophilic addition to alkenes, dienes and alkynes; polymerization; nucleophilic substitution (SN1, SN2) and elimination (E1 and E2) with carbon sp3; aromatic electrophilic substitution; nucleophilic addition to carbonyl and acyl nucleophilic substitution. Synthesis and reactivity of the various functional groups in the light of the reaction mechanisms. Enolates and their inter-, intra-molecular and crossed condensations. Bi- and polyfunctional molecules: acetacetic and malonic synthesis; hydroxyacids, enonic systems, triglycerides (soaps, surfactants and micelles), a-amino acids (structures and isoelectric point), carbohydrates (classification, hemiacetal structures, glucosides, polysaccharides.

Synthetic methods of organic compounds. Purification and separation techniques. Distillation, sublimation, crystallization, separation, extraction, centrifugation. Chromatographic techniques: stationary phase and mobile phase, adsorption chromatography, breakdown, ion exchange, on column, on paper and on thin layer, HPLC, gas-chromatography. Spectroscopy in organic chemistry: fundamental principles of spectroscopy in VIS and IR; NMR spectroscopy; mass spectrometry. Practical experiences in the laboratory on the topics covered.

The scientific method. Physical quantities and their dimensions. Units of measurement systems. Measuring instruments and their characteristics. Characteristics of a measure. Sensitivity errors and their propagation. Related errors. Systematic errors. Random errors. Frequency histograms. Charts. Significant figures and order of magnitude. Type A errors and type B errors. Elements of statistics. The concept of probability and the properties of probabilities. Discrete and continuous distribution functions: the concept of expected value and variance; the moments of the distribution functions and the moment generating function. The main functions of discrete distribution: binomial and Poisson. The main functions of continuous distribution: uniform, of Gauss, of t of Student, of c2, normal bivariate. The central limit theorem. The distribution of random errors and their propagation. The function of distribution of the variance of the mean and the significant figures in the statistical error. Student t distribution applications. Confidence interval and statistical errors. Applications of the distribution of c2. The criterion of maximum likelihood. The least squares method. The correlation sample coefficient. Linear fit: predictions and confidence intervals for the parameters of the lines, interpolations and extrapolations. Linear fit in the case where both variables are affected by error.

Volumetric chemical analysis: basic acid titrations; indicators; redox titrations. Potentiometric methods: the pH meter. Analysis with spectrophotometric methods: UV-visible spectrometry, spectrophotometer, absorption spectra, Lambert-Beer law. Practical experiences in the laboratory on the topics covered. Topics covered in the laboratory experience (3 CFU): The chemistry laboratory: equipment and materials. Standards of behavior and safety.ƒn Measurement, measurement errors.ƒn Quantitative volumetric methods: basic and redox titrations. Preparation of solutions of known type; standard substances. Indicators and titration curves. Analysis with potentiometric and spectrophotometric methods. The following topics will be addressed: ¡Acid-base PTitolation. ¡Redox PT. ¡Potentometric PTithings. ¡Spectrophotometric determination of Fe2+.

Topics covered in the lectures (6CFU): · Atomic theory. The electrons in atoms, quantum, orbital numbers and their filling. Atom structure. Atoms, molecules, atomic number, atomic mass and mole. · Periodic system, general properties of the elements. · The chemical bond. Electronegativity, hybrid orbitals, resonance, hydrogen bonding. Molecules. Molecular Structure. · Chemical Nomenclature. Oxides, hydroxides, acids, salts. · The gaseous state. Equation of state. Ideal gases and real gases. · Condensed states, bonds in solids. · Determination of the formulas. Equilibrium chemical equilibrium equations and stoichiometric calculations. Oxide-reductions oxidation number and calculation. · Fundamentals of thermodynamics, principles and status functions · State changes and state diagrams. · Chemical equilibrium. Balance constant. Basic acid and precipitation balances. · Solutions. Concentration. Self-protection of water. Colligative properties. Electrolyte solutions. Solutions of strong and weak acids and bases, pH. Buffer solutions. Hydrolysis. · Electrochemistry. Batteries and electrolysis cells. · Chemical kinetics and hints on kinetic theories. Speed ​​of reaction and factors that influence it. · Systematic inorganic chemistry. Chemical behavior of elements, characteristics of groups and periods. The main elements of the periodic table. Transition elements and coordination complexes.

The course is divided into 2 modules: 1 of Cytology (4 CFU) and 1 of Histology (2 CFU). Topics covered in Lessons: Chemical composition of the cell. Cell membranes: structure and functions. Secretion and vesicular traffic. Cellular organs: structure and functions. The cytoskeleton and the bases of cellular movement. The nucleus and the genetic information. Cell cycle and cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis. Epithelial tissue. Connective tissues. Muscle tissue. Nervous tissue. Topics covered in the exercises: Use of the optical microscope. Observation of fresh cells. Cellular colors. Examination of histological preparations with observation of the main tissues.

Origin of Vertebrates. The first Agnates and the appearance of Gnatostomes. Diversity and evolutionary success of aquatic bed vertebrates based on their anatomy and reproductive biology. Origin of the Tetrapods and conquest of the land emerged. The advent of the amniotic egg and the definitive conquest of the terrestrial environment by the Reptiles. Birds and flight adaptation. The diversity of Mammals is the expression of a natural plasticity and of ongoing evolutionary processes. Comparative Anatomy of Organic Vertebrate Systems: Food Strategies in Vertebrates: Respiratory, Digestive and Circulatory Systems; organization, development and function of equipment involved in the intake of food, in their treatment, in the capture of oxygen and the circulation of blood and lymph. Evolution of the Uro-Genital System in Vertebrates: organization of the renal system. Modalities and types of excretion. Sexual differentiation and sex determination. Reproductive strategies in Vertebrates.

From a single cell to a multicellular organism: differentiation and morphogenesis. Study models. Sexual reproduction. Structural differences between the egg and the spermatozoon. Fertilization: recognition of gametes at a distance and by contact. Activation of the spermatozoon. Fusion of gametes. Activation of the egg. Prevention of polispermy. General information on the various stages of development: segmentation, gastrulation, organogenesis. The types of eggs and the related division patterns. Development of the anfiosso. Radial segmentation, gastrulation: cellular mechanisms. Early stages of organogenesis: neurulation. Development of amphibians. Segmentation: macromers and micromers. Gastrulation and early stages of organogenesis. Bird Development. Discoid segmentation. Gastrulation: primitive stria and Hensen's knot. Neurulation. The mesoderm and the fate of the regions in which it is subdivided. Somatopleura and splancnopleura. The celoma. The extraembryonic outbuildings: amnios, corion, allantoide and yolk sac. Development of Mammals. Rotational segmentation. The blastocyst: trophoblast and internal cell mass. Gastrulation. Placenta. Neurulation.

Biodiversity, systematics and phylogeny of plants. Concept of plant organisms; phylogenetic methods of investigation; classifications. The diversity of plants in an evolutionary key: the organization of vegetative structures. Photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria. Phyletic lines in the protophytes and in the photosynthetic unicellular cells. Mushrooms. Lichens. Reproductive modalities and biological cycles in plants. Main algal taxa. Bryophytes. Vascular plants: pteridophytes; gymnosperms; angiosperms, with examples of families. Evolution of ontogenetic cycle, from algae plants to vascular plants with flower. Main cultivated plants and their origins. Global importance of vegetations and plant biodiversity.

Plant cytology. Plant cells; endosymbiotic theories. vacuoles; microbodies, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, secretory pathways. Cell wall, plasmodesms. Plastids. Cell differentiation. Plant anatomy. Meristems and totipotency of plant cells; vegetative apexes. Definitive fabrics; parenchyma; tegumental, mechanical, conducting, secretory tissues. The corm - anatomy and organography of: root, caule, leaves; specializations and transformations. The flower, its structure, nature and formation; pollination, fertilization, embryogenesis; seeds and fruits. Vegetative reproduction. Structure of the upper plants. Meristems and adult tissues. Cormo development: primary and secondary growth. Primary and secondary structures of roots and stems; leaf development and organization Reproduction. Genesis and evolution of the flower and the fruit.

Preparation of fresh and permanent plant histological preparations. Overview of Histochemical and Cytochemical Techniques. Morphological analysis. Identification of plant organisms. Identification and classification of vascular plants. Preparation of samples for herbals. In vivo and in vitro plants collection. Introduction to plant ecology and field excursions for in situ detection of plant biodiversity, with hints on the science of vegetation

Structural theory. Isomerism and stereoisomeries. Resonance and electronic effects. Functional groups: structure, nomenclature and chemical-physical properties of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkynes, arenes, halides, alcohols, amines, imines, phenols, acids, esters, amides, imides and nitriles. Homo- and hetero-aromatic compounds. The main reaction mechanisms: radical halogenation of alkanes; electrophilic addition to alkenes, dienes and alkynes; polymerization; nucleophilic substitution (SN1, SN2) and elimination (E1 and E2) with carbon sp3; aromatic electrophilic substitution; nucleophilic addition to carbonyl and acyl nucleophilic substitution. Synthesis and reactivity of the various functional groups in the light of the reaction mechanisms. Enolates and their inter-, intra-molecular and crossed condensations. Bi- and polyfunctional molecules: acetacetic and malonic synthesis; hydroxyacids, enonic systems, triglycerides (soaps, surfactants and micelles), a-amino acids (structures and isoelectric point), carbohydrates (classification, hemiacetal structures, glucosides, polysaccharides.

Synthetic methods of organic compounds. Purification and separation techniques. Distillation, sublimation, crystallization, separation, extraction, centrifugation. Chromatographic techniques: stationary phase and mobile phase, adsorption chromatography, breakdown, ion exchange, on column, on paper and on thin layer, HPLC, gas-chromatography. Spectroscopy in organic chemistry: fundamental principles of spectroscopy in VIS and IR; NMR spectroscopy; mass spectrometry. Practical experiences in the laboratory on the topics covered.

The scientific method. Physical quantities and their dimensions. Units of measurement systems. Measuring instruments and their characteristics. Characteristics of a measure. Sensitivity errors and their propagation. Related errors. Systematic errors. Random errors. Frequency histograms. Charts. Significant figures and order of magnitude. Type A errors and type B errors. Elements of statistics. The concept of probability and the properties of probabilities. Discrete and continuous distribution functions: the concept of expected value and variance; the moments of the distribution functions and the moment generating function. The main functions of discrete distribution: binomial and Poisson. The main functions of continuous distribution: uniform, of Gauss, of t of Student, of c2, normal bivariate. The central limit theorem. The distribution of random errors and their propagation. The function of distribution of the variance of the mean and the significant figures in the statistical error. Student t distribution applications. Confidence interval and statistical errors. Applications of the distribution of c2. The criterion of maximum likelihood. The least squares method. The correlation sample coefficient. Linear fit: predictions and confidence intervals for the parameters of the lines, interpolations and extrapolations. Linear fit in the case where both variables are affected by error.

a) Contents: Representation and coding of information. Hardware: architecture and components of the personal computer (PC). System software (operating system) and application software. Software structure: algorithms, programming languages, spreadsheets. Scientific calculation and data processing. The delocalized architecture: the computer networks (internet). Use of the "network" and practical security rules. Network searches (databases). b) Cultural competences Knowledge of · Basic notions of PC architecture. · Basic notions of programming and calculation. · Elaboration of experimental data and presentation of scientific results. · Correct use (security and privacy) of the "internet" network c) Methodological skills How to perform · Use of the PC in the windows environment for the calculation and processing of scientific data · Define and implement an algorithm for solving problems related to calculation and data processing. · Use the PC for the analysis and statistical processing of experimental data.